Ethics †Current Events Essay

The issue between the United States accusing China of hacking the Pentagon’s computer network is in a way a violation of the Data Protection Law and international law. For many years the Pentagon has been the subject of cyber intrusion and attempts to penetrate its most kept defense data which if this system will be intruded there would be a possible attempt for an international terrorism. Although the intrusion was only discovered recently according to the US Defense Department it was possible that China has been trying many ways and means to penetrate Pentagon’s database system. The problem here lies not only to the People’s Liberation Army which Pentagon was pointing but China’s Foreign Minister, Jiang Yu is denying the accusations saying his country has no part in the intrusion attempt to the Defense Department’s systems. Fortunately, the US defense system is equipped with the most advance military technology that could detect and tract such intrusion. The Pentagon greatly considers the Chinese People’s Liberation Army in staging such hacking although it did not disclose that Beijing which is China’s seat of Socialism is involved here. Although the US Department of Defense confirmed that the existence of such group could be a small group formed out of the PLA, its intention is anticipated in trying to get information using technological advances (Starr, Todd and Payne). But it is just obvious that even the most highly advanced technology could not stop an ever changing development of computer viruses, spywares and worms to mutate into a more advance and destructive programs. All of these are man-made and unfortunately those people on the other parts of the world are trying to take advantage and could developed these into more powerful and persistent programs so they can merge themselves to the existing programs for destructive purposes. Not only the US is grieving about such violation of international law but even London as well who holds the same position as a powerful country is confirming such an intrusion. Although at this time China is showing its meekness with the present issues, no one can really tell if this is the result of a shadowing another Cold War between the two large countries. The US cannot totally eliminate espionage on its defense system and has a rich history in violation of its secret information. But what causes other personalities or even countries to have an interest to gather information from the US is still unfathomable to the ordinary people. China with its olden years of co-habiting principles with the old Russia has not totally erased its personality as a communist country. Indeed it has grown in terms of its economy because of the free trade but many believe that this was just superficial because China was trying secretly to be another growing superpower in the making. In terms of manpower and number of armies indeed China has not lost its capability to be an independent country. President Bush still wanted to play it safe and could not directly convict China of such intrusion. After all he is trying to build rapport to avoid another international issue that could destroy relationships between nations. On the contrary, the people in the White House are all aware of this issue and are not sleeping with two eyes closed. Fortunately, the incident only happened on the surface attacking the unclassified e-mail in the Defense department before it can penetrate the military’s database. The Pentagon had to shut down its unclassified e-mail for a few weeks although it is not networked to military network that contain confidentialities. No harm done so far and Pentagon officials said none of their operations were disrupted. Not only has Washington is confirming such an assault from the group but even the Britain’s Parliament and the Foreign Office has been hacked according to the Associated Press and Guardian newspaper of London. AP who is keen on making research involving China and international espionage has made a report that the day before the German Chancellor Angela Merkel’s visit to Beijing, the local newspaper Der Spiegel said they found Trojans (spy programs) at the Chancellery computer system. Everybody is not safe even to the extent of breaking laws and bypassing international boundaries. There are only countries that are only moving for their advantage notwithstanding privacy and securities. Indeed, the technology has made a great advancement with great leaps and development. It is only unfortunate that sometimes leaps and bounds are crossing the borders and surmounting other people’s space of confidentiality.

Theseus’ Ship

The Ancient Identity Crises The transitivity of identity is a question often contemplated by philosophers through philosophical puzzles of change. A popular version of the puzzle includes a man named Theseus and his ship. A ship in which has undergone a gradual change where all of the lumber was replaced by the new cargo of lumber it carried. The question then remains, is this still the original ship of Theseus? Philosopher John Locke attempts to answer this question by stating that identity is a subjective matter rather than objective.He begins by separating the idea of a substance, organism, and a person and the different criteria used to determine each type of identity. Naturally we would agree with Locke that a ship is a not a living thing capable of thought and assume that it can only be talked about in reference to matter. However, Locke proposes that a substance like the Ship of Theseus can be talked about with reference to a conscious subject’s beliefs towards it.This is based off the fact that a concept of the ship’s identity could not exist without human consciousness. Locke also provides a further suggestion that two things should not be questioned as whether or not they’re simply the same. The reason for this being that criteria differs among concepts so we must be careful in specifying â€Å"the same what† when making comparisons. Therefore, Locke concludes that the idea belonging with the ship is the identity of the ship itself.In other words, identity is a relative aspect rather than absolute, one that heavily depends on context. Identity can be defined as the distinct characteristics by which something is recognized. In other words, identity is an idea created by and for people and does not exist without them. This directly links with Locke’s idea of relative identity, as the perception of an idea is a relative concept depending on what, where, when, and whom you are asking.We must also keep in mind that just b ecause things are qualitatively identical in sharing similar properties, it may not mean they are numerically identical as one and vice versa. It is ultimately up to whomever is answering the question from what angle to declare an objects identity. In this case, I will present a variety of explanations to the identity of Theseus’ ship through different contexts. In the context of defining a ship, the change in lumber does not interfere with the necessary criterion of the preconceived notion of a ship.Though Theseus’ ship has undergone a qualitative change through the replacement of lumber, it still remains the same ship by definition of a large vessel that carries goods or people over sea. So the ship may not be qualitatively identical to the old one but numerically the same because it serves the same purpose as Theseus’ ship over time. Now, consider another context where after Theseus ceases to exist, somebody purchases and moves this ship onto land to serve an d sell dinner on deck.It’s then safe to say that the object does not meet the conditions of a ship, despite being qualitatively identical. Instead, the object now serves the purpose of a restaurant, causing it to retain a new identity without losing any parts at all. However, the context changes once again when we begin to consider the identity of the ship in relation to Theseus. Despite the gradual changes, there has only ever been one beginning to Theseus’ ship, so we can assume that he has no problem claiming it as his own.But what happens when the old, original lumber is collected and used to build a qualitatively similar ship? There are now two ships that share similar properties instead of one ship that is qualitatively different, yet numerically the same over time. Theseus must then claim one ship to be the original based on the criteria he has of how his vessel should be constituted. His predetermined opinion on what conditions must be met in order for either o f the ships to be the original is what essentially establishes the identity of the old ship.In this situation, I can agree with Locke that though the old lumber is being used, the ship is still being created from a new beginning, rendering it a new ship. Though it can then be argued that if both ships match Theseus’ criteria of the original ship, this does not make it possible for them to be one numerical identity as they are clearly two. By analyzing the various contexts above, it causes us to consider identity as grey matter rather than just a simple black and white answer.It also begins to make it clear that identity is an issue of semantics and epistemology, rather than a metaphysical one. However, while the belief of an idea within a specific circumstance is important in constituting an identity, it becomes difficult to say what is true in a world of many different perceptions. That’s when semantics might be able to step in to sort out the problem of subjectivity. Still, it’s visible that identity is a relative concept that relies on perception and context rather than something that is absolute.

What makes art art

Art is any form of self-expression. Art is something that is created that entertains, inspires, educates or makes a person feel something good, bad or unexplainable. Art is whatever the artist does or makes in which they deem to be art whether it is of value or not. There is a wide variety of art, some that people wouldn't imagine as art, but a true artist sees art in every creation. Art is everywhere and in everything I see. Art is not Just a painting, poem, drawing or a ballet. When I think of art I think of something somebody does to release their feelings.Different people express art in various ways. For example, someone who writes a love letter because they are unable to express their feelings through touch or emotion. Is this art? Watching Michael Jordan drive down the court and slam the ball. He was recognized for his unique ways for a reason. So, is this art? Making music, any type of music whether it is appealing to your ears or not. Is this art? All of these things are art to me. Art does not have to be beautiful or make you feel good to be defined as art; it is an expression of emotion.We are all artists in my eyes because we are all able to feel and create. All of life is art to me. When I think about art, its creator and the meaning of the creation I think the content is more Important then the context. I don't necessarily need to understand when and why it was created to form my opinion on whether or not I enjoy it. I like to find my own meaning and form my own opinion without knowing the background of the art. After I form my opinion I do like to research and find the artists meaning to see If I understood their expression without having it outlined.As an example I would like to reference Edward Sinkhole's piece, History as a Planter. Before doing any research on this piece I noticed the feet which I thought represented history and movement, the sign notating war I thought about struggle, and the plant, which I was perplexed until I did a little research. The plant Is a wondering Jew. So I was partially correct. From what I found out doing some light research, this piece of art Is symbolic of the way the artist views the history of the Jewish struggles.Art Is everywhere you look and such a huge part of our everyday, ring to explain a true definition Is almost Impossible or overwhelming. There Is Intentional art and accidental art. There are famous artists and artists as us. Take a look around you, everything you see Is art, and everything you see Is designed by someone. Yes, machines make things for us, but someone designed that piece or even designed that machine used to make that piece. Now, take another look around you. What Isn't art? Of the creation I think the content is more important then the context.I don't research and find the artists meaning to see if I understood their expression without trudge, and the plant, which I was perplexed until I did a little research. The plant is research, this piece of art is symbo lic of the way the artist views the history of the Jewish struggles. Art is everywhere you look and such a huge part of our everyday, trying to explain a true definition is almost impossible or overwhelming. There is intentional art and accidental art. There are famous artists and artists as us. Take a look around you, everything you see is art, and everything you see is designed by you.

Linda Loman and the Cult of Domesticity In Arthur Millers Death of a Essay

Linda Loman and the Cult of Domesticity In Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman - Essay Example Miller's archetypal portrayal of Linda Loman therefore represents both a general example and a figurehead for her social status: lower middle class suburban white domestics. Alienated from her husband Willy, Linda tries to accommodate his role of the head of household, despite the fact that she must see to the actual running and repair of the home. She accepts a subordinate role and lives vicariously through his dreams: as Miller describes her "she admires him his massive dreams and little cruelties (are) reminders of the turbulent longings within him which she shares but lacks the temperament to utter and follow" (Miller 12). With her dreams confined to the house and her life defined by what her husband can provide, it is no surprise that Linda constantly seeks to support Willy self-image and delusions while attempting to create a level of harmony between him and their two children. Paradoxically, these same restraints of patriarchy and cult of domesticity drive Willy's motivations as well, for he is obliged to both be the provider and secure a sheltered reality for Linda safe from the outside world. Thus, Linda's fate is completely entwined with Willy's. She ultimately symbolizes the model of many domestic ideals yet at the same time provides a warning to women everywhere of the dangers inherent in being sheltered from the rest of society. To fully understand the extent with which Linda's psychology has been entrapped, one must first examine both the tenets of the cult of domesticity (COD) and then the methods with which these qualities were reinforced by society. The COD is framed by four main elements: domesticity, submissiveness, purity, and piety. While this last element in not overtly present in the play (given that the general religion of America is regarded as Protestant Christianity), it is present through the concept of faith, through Willy's faith in the Business World, Linda's faith in her husband, and the faith of both in the established order of the family unit. It is the slow erosion of these faiths' that bring about the psychological crises in the plot. Linda is generally regarded by family members as 'pure' in sexual experience and fidelity, as exhibited by the boys using her for a model of their ideal wives and by Willy's concern in providing for her (her faithfulness constantly provoking guilt over h is own infidelity). Likewise, while other female characters in the play are strong and independent depictions, they are suspicious in that they have broken away from the traditional domestic role. As such, they are morally questionable, with an aura of promiscuity about them illustrated all the more by Willy's affair and by the boys frequent conquests. Linda completely fulfills the qualification of submissiveness, through such examples as removing Willy's shoes for him in the very first scene, to pandering to his ego by calling him "the handsomest man in the world.." (Miller 37). The COD has instilled women with the notion that they need a "protector;" it is therefore Linda's role to not only see to her husband's every comfort while at home, but she must also bolster him mentally and emotionally so that he can go out and face the world. As far as domestic rule, Linda is revealed to be in charge of the actual operation

Abacus in the world Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Abacus in the world - Research Paper Example mechanical frame containing several rods on which are mounted wooden beads which can be slid manually into different positions and combinations to represent numbers† (188). Materials used to make early abacuses in different regions varied. For example, among the Maya and Aztec people of Mesoamerica, maize kernels threaded on strings were used instead of beads, while the Inca people who lived in Peru centuries ago had an abacus that was made up of a â€Å"tray with compartments that were arranged in rows in which counters were moved in order to make calculations† (Keoke and Porterfield 1). The abacus originated from the Middle East thousands of years ago. Jain asserts that its evolution took place in 3000 B.C. (7). Darling points out that â€Å"the word appears to come from the Hebrew á ºÅ¡bá ºÅ¡q (dust) or the Phoenician abak (sand) via the Greek abax, which refers to a small tray covered with sand to hold the pebbles steady† (3). Over the centuries, there have been different types of abacuses. The first type was called suanpan and was used in China in 1300 (Barnes-Svarney and Svarney 349). There is no agreement regarding who invented this type of abacus but it is that believed it was the Chinese, Japanese or Koreans. Barnes-Svarney and Svarney affirm that â€Å"although merchants used this type of abacus for standard addition and subtraction operations, it could also be used to determine square and cube roots of numbers† (349). The other type of abacus was the soroban or the Japanese abacus. Apart from the fact that it lacked a bead in the upper and lower deck of every column, it was very similar to the Chinese abacus. The Roman abacus also had one bead lacking from the upper and lower deck of every column making it very similar to the Japanese abacus. According to Barnes-Svarney and Svarney, â€Å"the Russians also have their own version of an abacus; it uses ten beads on each wire, and a single deck† (349). To separate the two wires, a wire with fewer beads is

Comparison of Two Recovery Room Warming Methods for Hypothermla Coursework

Comparison of Two Recovery Room Warming Methods for Hypothermla Patlents Who Had Undergone Spinal Surgery - Coursework Example Highlighting the differences and the essence of the research results, findings and conclusions can also be considered to play a major role in a research article analysis. With the above information in hand, this paper will analyze the research article namely The Comparison of Two Recovery Room Warming methods for Hypothermia Patients Who Had Undergone Spinal Surgery. The key element of this research article concerns the concept of homeostasis, whereby the human body is able to maintain a relative equilibrium state under fluctuating environmental (temperature) conditions. Thus, the human body is able to regulate the body temperature with the assistance of the hypothalamus. This research article also makes a detailed study on the time needed to reach the specified temperature by the hypothermia patients who have undergone spinal surgery. The efficiency of two major warming methods such as the warm cotton blankets and a radiant warmer for the patients in a post anesthetic care unit is c ompared in the article. The analysis of this research article can be centered on the evaluation of the validity of the results which in turn depends on the research plan measurement, data collection and analysis process. Thus, the research plan measurement can be further classified into fragments such as cases, observations, variables and unit of analysis. In this article, the cases that are taken for research were of the hypothermia patients who had undergone the spinal surgery. These patients were kept under observation with respect to their body temperatures. The variables implemented in this case would be the different types of warming methods. Hence, the research had a concrete plan on which the data collection, analysis and interpretation of the results were built up effectively. The other vital area to be focused would be the data collection process. â€Å"This study was conducted according to a quasi-experimental design. Data was collected from a medical referral centre in northern Taiwan.† (Yang, Lee, Chu, Su, Ho and Fan 2). Thus, the data collection process included selecting the study samples from patient group in Taiwan, who are older than eighteen years, also who were under general anesthesia during the course of the surgery as well as those who were conscious and able to communicate. Above all, the other parameters that were included in the process of data collection were selecting the patients who had had no fever for seventy two hours before carrying out the study, had an operation time of about three to six hours, and patients who had a tympanic temperature of about 34 to 35 degrees Celsius. Thus, based on the above criteria, the sample data were collected and the effectiveness of the warming devices on these patients was studied. After the completion of the data collection process, the next step would be data analysis and arriving at conclusions and results. The basic framework of the data analysis would be to measure the efficiency of the warming equipments with respect to the rewarming time required for the patients who had undergone the spinal surgery. â€Å"The data were analyzed using SPSS version 17 software for Windows and significance level was set at p

Pollution of environment during, petroleum and gas synthesis Essay

Pollution of environment during, petroleum and gas synthesis - Essay Example According to Obadina (2007), oil production in Canada rose from 1.8 million barrels to 3.1 million barrels per day between 1984 and 2003. Appreciating the widespread global use of petroleum and gas products, this paper seeks to outline the environmental pollution resulting from the synthesis of petroleum and gas, giving recommendations on prevention approaches. Environmental pollution would be appreciated as the process of man introducing energy or substances into the environment that could cause hazards to the health of human beings, harm ecological systems and living resources and interfere with or damage the legitimate use of the environment (Walker et al. 2006). The petroleum industry encompasses various activities in exploration, production and transportation of about 3.5 billion tons and 2.5 giga m3 of crude oil and natural gas respectively and other derivatives around the world each year (Walker et al. 2006). After the exploration process identifies a commercially viable reser ve, the extraction of oil and gas would be carried out through drilling by use of special technologies (Vidal 2012). The extracted hydrocarbon product would then be separated into gas and liquids and dehydrated to get rid of excess water. This would then be split into various petroleum and gas products. ... The synthesis process involves exploration and production of the products of natural gas and crude oil. It encompasses the exploration and preparation of well sites, drilling, production of crude oil and gas and on-site processing. The synthesis of petroleum and natural gas products as observed by Kaiser and Pulsipher (2007) starts with the bringing to above the ground crude oil and natural gas which would in turn be processed to various products for distribution to consumers. In the process, the industry contributes to air, water and soil pollution with the components of the resources being processed and the subsequent by-products and products, the latter being the key pollutants. Natural gas would mainly contain methane with water and carbon dioxide as impurities. Crude oils vary widely in viscosity and colour but studies by Kaiser and Pulsipher (2007) indicate 79.5% to 87.3%, 10.4% to 14.8%, 0 to 8%, 0 to 2%, 0 to 0.1% and 0 to 0.005% carbon, hydrogen , sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen a nd metals composition respectively. The main constituents are hydrocarbons of varied types and molecular masses with between 1 and 60 carbon atoms. The synthesis of gas involves processing natural gas by dewatering and removing its acid components such as hydrogen sulphide followed by eventual removal of carbon dioxide. Despite taking appropriate precautions against environmental pollution, Obadina (2007) appreciates that accidents occur periodically in the course of producing petroleum and gas. Air pollution in the process of petroleum and gas synthesis occurs through combustion emissions, fugitive emissions, process emissions, secondary emissions and from handling and storage of petroleum liquids

To what extent have feminist ideas influenced policy making since 1965 Essay

To what extent have feminist ideas influenced policy making since 1965 Critically discuss with reference to ONE of the followin - Essay Example While the first wave of feminism was primarily concerned with formal political rights, the second generation of feminist thinkers laid the emphasis on the issues of workplace and marital equality, as well as those of women’s representation in public agencies. This had an important impact on further policy making. National Organization of Women and the Struggle for Women’s Rights. While the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was founded in 1965 in order to combat the gender discriminatory practices in the sphere of employment, its activity was judged to be unsatisfactory by many activists of women’s movement. In 1966, liberal feminists led by Betty Friedan, a celebrated author of The Feminine Mystique, formed the National Organization for Women (NOW) that aimed at integrating women â€Å"into full participation in the mainstream of American society now, assuming all privileges and responsibilities...in truly equal partnership with men† (qtd . in Thornham 25). The foundation of NOW was caused by repeated refusal of the EEOC officials to seriously confront the prevalent discriminatory practices in the labour relations (Banks 212). ... Constitution (Harrison 198). The activities of NOW mainly concentrated on creating publicity for the organisation, which was expressed through pickets and other public demonstrations, and on lobbying political establishment, including the Presidency. Nevertheless, their actions eventually proved rather fruitful for the further development of women’s movement and the adoption of equality legislation. The first influence of feminist movement on equal opportunities policies in the USA after 1965 may be traced in the controversy surrounding the inclusion of provision on sex discrimination in Executive Order 11246, which aimed at creating affirmative action programmes for racial minorities. As the 1964 Civil Rights Act had already provided for prevention of sexual discrimination in employment, the omission of sex discrimination clause in that Executive Order was regarded as an expression of neglect for the needs of women. Consequently, the efforts of several women’s organisa tions, including the National Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs and Federal Women’s Award Study Group, led to the inclusion of the provision against sex discrimination in the text of Executive Order in October 1967, with the NOW leadership asserting that it was a victory for their ideas (Harrison 202). Later on, NOW repeatedly clashed with the EEOC apparatus with regard to protective labour legislation. In 1967 EEOC was forced to back away from its previous non-interventionist attitude on such issues as labour rights for female workers and age and marital status discrimination at the workplace, with air flight companies being the

Mystery Images Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mystery Images - Assignment Example Mystery image three shows some celebration of a kind, maybe during a festive season. It shows some incorporation of a certain dress code during feasting, types of drinks, sitting arrangements, conversation and general pomp. The arrangement is modern though mixed with some traditional outfits like hats. The three images are familiar; they have been seen in most books of history, magazines, journals, television, movies while demonstrating diverse cultures. In fashion shows, for example, mystery image one is widely imitated by fashion designers and models as they compete. Mystery image two is used by architects as they design buildings in trying to combine the traditional and modern technology. The pyramid houses have been taken from the design of building mosques while others resemble the modern church. Mystery image three is copied by film actors and actresses, the hats, veils, and win are used in modern day weddings. Mystery image one can be compared to the picture in the book, Social Psychology, and Human Nature pg 200, fig 1, labeled ‘attitudes versus beliefs’. The chapter is explaining how attitudes are formed and why people have them. The impression shown out here is that specific person in the society are supposed to dress in a certain manner. Mystery image two can be likened with a picture on page 99, in the same book, fig 1 labeled ‘choices and actions’. The chapter explores what human beings do and what it means to them as well as freedom of action. The choice of either traditional or modern building or to merge the two is optional. Mystery image 3 is compared to picture on page 27, fig 1 labeled’ nature and social behavior’. The chapter is examining the interaction between nature and culture. It is also expounding the essential features of human social life as seen in the festivities taking place in the image above. Bartlett is a multiple museum, found in Merrimack Valley, Massachusetts, the U.S.A. it is   a historic house with Amesbury history exhibits, replicas of colonial kitchen and a Victorian parlour, a natural olden times room, a class and a wagon house.  State Hermitage is a museum of arts and culture found in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It has the largest collection of paintings and occupies a large complex of six historic buildings. The museum has also several exhibition centers abroad.  

Native American Spirituality Essay Example for Free

Native American Spirituality Essay The purpose of this essay is to present the spiritual world of the Native Americans, which is one of the oldest forms of Spirituality that exists on earth. The main reason why I have chosen this topic is because I want to find out more information about their spiritual dimension and perhaps to understand better the main differences between our religion and theirs. In order to better observe this aspect, I will be analyzing the religious beliefs of three Native American tribes, such as: The Iroquois, the Apache and the Dakota tribes. To start with, I consider it relevant to mention that the Native American religions centers on a collection of beliefs, which vary from tribe to tribe. However, almost all tribes practice a modified monotheism , which is the belief in the Great Spirit. They also have an animistic belief in individual spirits residing in animals and forces of nature, but none of these is higher than the Great Spirit (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). In other words, this means that Native American spirituality is nature-based, since it is so closely connected with the earth. As I have previously mentioned, many Native Americans believe in The Great Spirit, who is â€Å"the high deity amongst all of the spirits† (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). Since ancient times, the Native Americans have believed in a Supreme Being whom they called father and they believe this entity is either a man or an animal, especially a wolf, which has human thoughts and is even able to talk (Panther-Yates, n.d). In order to control the forces of the spiritual world , the Native Americans used ceremonial practices, since these were considered to â€Å"renewed the bond between human beings and the spirit world† (Irwin, 2000). I will later on mention about these ceremonies and the person who is entitled to contact the spirits. In order to have a better understanding of their beliefs I have inserted here one fragment of the spiritual speech held by Charley Elkhair, one of the Native American indian: â€Å"We are thankful to the East because everyone feels good in the morning when they awake, and sees the bright light coming from the East; and when the Sun goes down in the West we feel good and glad we are well; then we are thankful to the West. And we are thankful to the North, because when the cold winds come we are glad to have lived to see the leaves fall again; and to the South, for when the south wind blows and everything is coming up in the spring, we are glad to live to see the grass growing and everything green again. We thank the Thunders, for they are the manitous that bring the rain, which the Creator has given them power to rule over. And we thank our mother, the Earth, whom we claim as mother because the Earth carries us and everything we need.† (Elkhair in M. R. Harrington, 1921). When researching for this essay I came across a very interesting comparison belonging to professor Harrington, who states that: â€Å" The juxtaposition of a personal creator God and anthropomorphic animals derived from mythology is no more inappropriate, however, than the behavior of Christians at Christmas time who set out a creche depicting the birth of Jesus next to a Christmas tree derived from an ancient pagan festival† ( Harrington, 1921). Another interesting element about at the Native American religions is the fact that they are basically free of any priesthood. However, there are still people who have a special connection to the spiritual world, called shamans: â€Å"Shamans are spiritually gifted people who through a variety of means have acquired the ability to help others through trance and dream journeying† (Irwin, 2000). Moreover, it is quite strange that the white anthropologists have often used the name medicine man (even though many were women) to indicate a mixture of shamanic and priestly capacities (Irwin, 2000). Shamanic trances can be induced through a variety of techniques, including chanting or drumming, fasting, and in some cases the use of psychotropic substances, the mildest of which might be tobacco ( McGaa, n.d). During these trance contacts, shamans may communicate with spirits of the dead or other spirits and learn what they need to know to help heal the body, mind, or soul of a patient, to locate game, or to predict the future ( McGaa, n.d). In the following lines, I will briefly present three Indian tribes in order to observe the differences and similarities between them as far as their spiritual world is concerned. The first tribe I will be analyzing is the Iroquois. This Native American tribe believes in twin forces known as Loskeha meaning good and Tawiscara meaning bad (Robinso n, 2002). The Native Americans believe Loskeha brought all the goodness in life, while Tawiscara spread sufferings and brought ill-luck (Robinson, 2002). The Iroquois also believed in the constant care of the Great Spirit, who †ruled and administered the world, and the affairs of the red race. (Robinson, 2002). What really fascinates me at this tribe is that it does not have a detailed conception of his creator because they believe that the Great Spirit was beyond their abilities to understand. However, they have some very detailed descriptions of this lower class of spirits that is believed to interact with the material world. The were known as Invisible Agents or Ho-no-che-no-keh. (Morgan in Robinson, 1954). These spirits possessed their power from the Great Spirit and were considered to be the manifestations of his unlimited power (Morgan in Robinson, 1954). Some of these spirits were given names and they were often identified with the object or force that they presided over (Morgan in Robinson, 1954). For example, He-no, one important spirit, was given the thunderbolt and controlled the weather. Morgan states that: â€Å"he had the form of man and wore the costume of a warrior† ((Morgan in Robinson, 1954). The Iroquois tribe believes not only in the kindness of the Great Spirit but also in the forces of evil. According to their belief, evil is represented by the brother of the Great Spirit, Ha-ne-go-ate-geh, or the Evil-minded (Robinson, 2002), who controls its own inferior spiritual beings. This tribe also believes that the Great Spirit does not have any type of positive authority over the forces of evil, except for â€Å"the power to overcome them when necessary†(Robinson, 2002). Therefore, the Iroquois can either choose to obey the Great Spirit or to the Evil-minded. It is important to note that the Iroquois developed the idea of an immortal soul, which will be judged by the Great Spirit the moment the body will die. This is why, they are afraid of being punished in the afterlife and therefore they worship him through many rituals and ceremonies (Robinson, 2002). These ritual ceremonies practiced by the Iroquois tribes occurred in certain seasonal periods throughout the year, but most commonly during important agricultural periods (Irwin, 2000). Even some of the Invisible Agents were honored at this ceremonies depending on what time of year the ceremony was taking place. The ceremonies were led by Keepers of the Faith, or Ho-nun-den-ont (Irwin, 2000), who were â€Å"a loosely organized council of qualified individuals who were assigned the task of maintaining the ritual practices of the Iroquois people†(Irwin, 2000). The second tribe I will briefly describe is The Apache tribe. Little is known about this nomadic group of Native Americans due to the fact that it lived an isolated existence in the harsh environment of the arid southwest. This tribe relied on scarce resources found in their desert environment for survival (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). Due to the fact that survival was difficult under these conditions they were not so preoccupied of the spiritual world (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). This is the reason why the belief system of the Apache tribes is less developed than the other tribe mentioned earlier. For instance, the Apache religion did not recognize a large pantheon of gods and goddesses. (Opler in Hirschfelder Molin, 1992) and focused on supernatural cultural figures that are responsible for the Apache way of life. What is interesting to notice at these entities is the fact that they interfered little in the daily activities of the people unless people called for their help. (Opler in Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). The Apache tribe has no religious ritual either since it is a non-agricultural society. Thus, they had no reason to celebrate seasonal periods and rarely celebrated any type of annual gathering. Instead, they focused all their time and energy on survival (Opler in Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). More importantly, however, was the fact that the Apache lacked an organized belief in an afterlife and instead they focused all attention towards survival in this world. This is why the most common form of ceremony for them were the curing rites, performed only by shamans (Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). Opler describes the Apache religion as a form of devotional shamanism. : It conceives of a universe permeated with supernatural power which must realize itself through man or not at all. (Opler in Hirschfelder Molin, 1992). The third tribe I will be analyzing is the Dakota tribe. According to Raymond J. DeMallie, the Dakota world was characterized by its oneness, its unity. (DeMallie, 1987:27). There was no separation of the natural world from the world of the supernatural: †This unity in nature was thought to be beyond the comprehension of mankind and could only be shared in through the practice of rituals† (DeMallie, 1987:27). The animating force that acted as the common denominator of the universe was known as Wakan Tanka (Densmore,1918:85).The physical world was composed of the manifestations of this animating force, which basically means that they believed that every object was spirit, or wakan. (Densmore, 1918:85). In other words, the Dakota tribe believed that nothing was real in the universe since everything in the material world had only the appearance of being real. Like the inferior spirits in the Iroquois belief system, Wakan Tanka employed the use of Wakan people (DeMallie 1987) to interact with the material world and control the lives of men. These characters were often the objects of worship and praise. According to DeMallie, Wakan Tanka was explained in relation to the Dakota by wicasa wakan, or holy men. (DeMallie 1987). These men attempted to create some type of order and understanding of this Great Incomprehensibility. (DeMallie 1987). White Buffalo Woman was one of the most important Wakan people to the Dakota. Their myth states that she gave the Dakota people the Calf Pipe (DeMallie, 1987) through which they could communicate with the invisible spirit world. According to DeMallie, Dakota rituals were based on mystical experiences instead of systematic worship. The most important aspect of ritual was the individual personal experience. The experience was usually related in the form of an interpretive dance inspired by a personal vision (DeMallie, 1987). There are several observations I need to make at the end of this research about the Native American spirituality. The first observation is that each of the tribes presented above are similar in the way in which they interact with the natural world. Therefore, the Native American spirituality can be characterized by this intimate relationship these people have with nature. They have a deep respect for Mother Earth and they praise her through these rituals that they so often perform. Secondly, I consider it important to mention the fact that there isn’t a clear distinction between the natural and the supernatural in any of the three tribes mentioned earlier. Also, their beliefs are rather a way of life and each tribe has his own system of beliefs. Based on the analysis of these Native American tribes the following conclusion can be formulated: these people have this deep religious feeling, even when systematic rituals are absent (which was the case of the Apache tribe). Kahlil Gibran once asked, Who can separate his faith from his actions, or his belief from his occupation?(Gibran in Robinson, 2002). It seems that Native Americans could not make this distinction either. I believe that is very difficult for other cultures, including our own, to have a full perception and understanding towards the Native American spirituality, since we were not educated into their belief system .Therefore, there are too many differences between the Christians beliefs and theirs, (I am not referring here to religion only, but also to their whole different culture and their unique way of life) which makes it almost impossible to fully understand their spiritual world. Bibliography Arlene B. Hirschfelder Paulette Molin, The Encyclopedia of Native American Religions: An Introduction, Facts on File, (1992). Charley Elkhair, quoted in M. R. Harrington, Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape, Indian Notes and Monographs, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, vol 19 (1921). Lee Irwin, Native American Spirituality: A critical reader, University of Nebraska Press, (2000). McGaa, Ed Eagle Man. Interview with Jean Holmes. LightNews.org: NativeAmerican Beliefs- Culture Near Extinction. http://www.lightnews.org/November%20Light%20News/Native_American_Beliefs.htm Native American Spirituality. Ed. Donna Ladkin. GreenSpirit. http://www.greenspirit.org.uk/resources/NatAmerSpirit.htm Native American Beliefs. http://4thmoon.com/styx/nativeam.htm Native American Religion. 1998. The Institute for Philosophy, Religion, and the Life Sciences, Inc. 24 Nov. 2002 http://www.stormwind.com/common/nareligion.html Panther-Yates, Donald. Remarks on Native American Tribal Religions. Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Georgia. http://www.wintercount.org/remark.doc Religious Movements Homepage: Native American Spirituality.,University of Virginia, Nov. 2002 http://http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/naspirit.html Robinson, B.A.. Religious Tolerance.org: Native American Spirituality, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, Nov. 2002 http://www.religioustolerance.org/nataspir.html

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles Reptiles are some of the oldest living creatures on the planet and made their first appearance some 300 million years ago. It is believed that the first species of snakes contained limbs which became more and more reduced through great periods of time, this phenomenon can be seen as a clear indicator just how evolution took place within a group of organisms. Today vestigial structures occur in certain serpent families such as Pythonidae and Boidae, and are remnants of structures they once possessed. Spurs which occur in the posterior position opposite the cloacae in Boas and Pythons is a clear example of vestigial structures that formed through time. Snakes are carnivorous reptiles that belong to the order Squamata (Lepidosuaria), which is regarded the most important assemblage, as far as snakes are concerned. Squamates is a very diverse group of ectothermic (organisms that rely on their external environment to obtain the energy needed to facilitate metabolic and other processes crucial for life), amniote vertebrates which contain the distinct characteristic of being elongated and covered in overlapping scales. Squamata is subdivided into three distinct suborders: Ophidia or Serpentes, containing snakes, Sauria containing lizards and Amphisbaenia containing worm- lizards. The suborder Ophidia contains 15 families which are subdivided into 456 genera that consist of more than 2900 species. Snakes have one of the widest distributional ranges in the animal kingdom, covering the whole planet except Antarctica (Figure 1.1). In South Africa alone there occurs 166 species and subspecies of snakes, 101 of these species have enlarged fangs to deliver venom of which only 15 are regarded as very dangerous and potentially fatal to man. This means that of all our snake species only 8.5% are classified as dangerous, where administration of antivenin is deemed necessary. The remainder of venomous species is of no medical importance to man, in fact in some species the toxicity of their venom is less than that found in bees and wasps. There are a few morphological characteristics of Ophidia which distinguishes them from the other two suborders e.g. the lack of eyelids, external ears, the lack of limbs and the occurrence of a single row of ventral scales, whereas lizards and amphisbaenas differ in the sense that they have various patterns of scales that do not occur in specific rows. Amphisbaenians scale formation is atypical in the sense that scales are arranged in rows around the body of the animal thus supposedly mimicking the resemblance of an earthworm. The skulls of Serpents are very unique in the sense that their upper jaw bones arent united/interconnected at snout of the animal, this enables the two jaw bones to act separate form one another and enables the snake to swallow large prey items. In contrary to popular belief snakes can however not dislocate or unhinge their jaws to swallow large prey items, the two upper jaws are simply connected to each other through connective tissue which is highly elastic a nd serves as the binding factor between the jaws. Snakes fulfill a crucial role/function in nature and can be seen as an integral aspect of our environment both as key predators and as prey. They assist in regulating rodent numbers and are good indicators of the natural balance of the environment (bio-indicators). In addition to this, research and development is being done on the properties of venom in the medical field. Research is being conducted on the applications of venom in fields such as high blood pressure, mental disorders and diseases of the central nervous system to mention but a few. Such is the complexity of venom that further studies, beneficial to man, are essential. It is there for imperative that we conserve our snakes not only for the preservation of our environment, but also for the wellbeing of mankind. Evolution that took place within the Class Reptilia Reptiles evolved from prehistoric amphibians called Labrynthodonts (Flank, 1997), and according to paleontologists made their first appearance in the Pennsylvanian era some 300 million years ago. They were also the first vertebrates to escape dependency on water. The earliest forms of reptiles suggested a mixture of both amphibian and reptilian characteristics, and diversified greatly over the next 200 million years. Reptiles were the dominant animal group on earth during the Mesozoic period, and were represented by 15 major groups. Only 4 of these orders survive today. Extinct are the fishlike Ichtyosaurus, sail-backed Pelycosaurs, flying Pterosaurs, Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, well-known dinosaurs like Brachiosaurs and many others. The dinosaurs included the largest animals ever to walk on earth-the Sauropods, some of them reaching lengths of nearly 27 meters long. Many of the less familiar dinosaurs were no longer than chickens. (Carr,1963) Several basic advances made possible the rise and wide distribution of reptiles on land. Most important was the amniote egg, with its tough outer covering and protective membranes, and a cornified skin that protected the animals from drying out. The positioning of the limbs also made it possible for reptiles to move more easily on land, and an improved circulatory system ensured that oxygen rich blood reached the animals. In their Mesozoic heyday, Reptiles dominated the land, seas and air, and the reason for their dramatic decline during this period is still not clear, although there are some speculation by biologists that the decline was probably caused by a meteor shower which altered a dramatic change in climate and giving rise to the so called Ice Age. Warm blooded vertebrates (Birds and Mammals) began to expand by the end of the Mesozoic period. By the time the Cenozoic period arose only 4 orders of reptiles still existed, and these same four have persisted to this day. The order Rhynchocephalia is represented by only one species, the lizzardlike, granular scaled Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) confined to New Zealand where its survival is now threatened. The remaining 3 orders have representatives throughout the world. The order Testudines (turtles) is the most ancient, appearing about 250 million years ago and remaining virtually unchanged for the past 200 million years. The order Crocodylia (cro codilians) is slightly less ancient and is traceable to the Permian thecodonts. The order Squamata refers to scaled reptiles that include lizards, amphisbaenids and snakes. This is the most recent order and was not common until the late Cretaceous times about 65 million years ago. In order to classify snakes or other organisms it is necessary to understand the origin and evolution of the species and place them into specific genera and families (Figure 1.2) Scientists believe that modern day snakes evolved from the family Varanidae, a group of lizards that belong to the genus Veranus. The fossils of Lapparentophis defrennei (Figure 1.3) was found in North Africa as we know it today, and it represents the earliest member of the suborder Ophidia. This species however shows no direct link between earlier snake like reptiles, and its origin continues to boggle biologists. Lapparentophis defrennei appeared on the earth around 100 million years ago during the Cretaceous period and were around for about 35 million years, were after it got extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period. Boidae was one of the seven families of snakes that arose after the Cretaceous period and was at its peak of speciation during this time. Colubridae in modern day times is the family that contains the largest amount of different snake species, and first emerged some 36 million years ago during the late Eocene, and the beginning of the Oligocene period. During this time Colubrids started to diversify at an immense rate and eventually gave rise to more new species during the Miocene period. This diversification led to the disappearance of some of the more primitive lineages of snakes because they could no longer compete with the better adapted species that was starting to evolve. Viperidae (vipers, rattle snakes and adders) and Elapidae (front fixed fang snakes generally cobras and mambas and their relatives) originated during the Miocene period and belongs to the infraorder Alethinophidia. The family Viperidae is by far the most advanced evolved species of snake in the world and contains highly specialized structures that enable them to be a very successful hunters e.g. heat- sensitive pits that developed on the upper labial and a brightly colored tail tip that occur in Agkistrodon sp. This is just one example of how specialized this family of serpents is to survive. Distinguising features of the suborder Ophidia All snakes are elongated, lack eyelids, external ears and osteoderms. Snakes poses a forked tongue which can be retracted into a sheath (Figure 2.1) All have along backbone. (Some have in excess of 400 vertebrae), with many articulated ribs used predominantly for locomotion and maintaining body shape. The lower jaw is not fused, which allows the snake to engulf large items. They do however not dislocate their jaw. Prey is subdued either by constriction or by the injection of venom. In the case of venomous snakes small prey items are bitten and held in the mouth until paralysis or death occurs, whereas large prey items are bitten and released to ensure that damage do not occur to the snake. The majority of species have only the right lung but more primitive species such as Pythonidae and Boidae also contains a rudimentary left lung. Unlike lizards the tail cannot be regenerated. All snakes shed their skin. All snakes hatch from eggs, some are Oviparous (eggs hatch outside the females body), and some are ovoviviparous (eggs hatch inside the mothers body thus giving birth to live young). Classification of snakes Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Ophidia (Serpentes) Infraorders: -Alethinophidia -Scolecophidia The classification of snakes are based on different morphological structures The general morphology of snakes is a crucial factor used in their Taxonomy. Factors such as the arrangement of bones in the skull and other parts of the skeleton, especially the presence or absence of a pelvic girdle are used to distinguish between separate and subspecies of snakes. The hypapohyses (vertebrae with downward pointing spike like projections), the coronoid bone (a small bone that occur in the lower jaw), structures of the hemipenes (Figure 2.2, Jadin, 2000) and microscopic and biochemical material such as chromosome arrangement and protein analyses are also used in classification of snakes. The presence or absence hypapohyses, especially in the lumbar region of the spine, is used as one of many diagnostic characters when classifying snakes. The hypapohyses is very prominent in the genus Dasypeltis which use them too saw trough egg shells. There occurs much variation in the shape and size of the coronoid bone. It is particularly large in primitive snakes such as Typhlopidae, Leptotyphlopidae and Anomalepididae. The coronoid bone is very small or absent altogether in advanced snake species. A hemipenis is the sex organ of male Squamates. Male snakes has two hemipenes probably for the reason that when one is damaged or injured, it still left with a spare one which can remain to work and carry out its normal function during copulation. This ensures that the males genes dont get lost and can still be carried over through copulation with females. Hemipenes, under normal conditions are used in an alternating fashion when copulation occurs with female individuals. Sperm is carr ied through the sulcus spermaticus (which is the line running through the middle of a males hmipenis) to the female during copulation. By examining the tail of an individual we are able to distinguish its sex. Males usually have a long tail which contains prominent bulges of where the hemipenes are situated and females usually have very short tails without the occurrence of any prominent bulges. The shapes of hemipenes differ greatly from species to species and contain different cranial structures thus forming a very important method for taxonomists to classify snakes into different species and subspecies. Relationships that occur between different species of Squamates as a result of evolution is best explained through the examination hemipenal characteristics of the different species. The function of the spines and ridges that occurs on hemipenes of different species of male snakes, serves as an adaption to ensure that copulation lasts long enough for egg fertilization to occur. Biology Hearing and Vision Snakes cannot hear airborne sounds due to the fact that they do not posses external ears. Snakes do however have an auditory nerve enabling them to hear sounds travelling through a dense medium. They are extremely sensitive to vibrations and can thus detect someone or something approaching them. For this reason people seldom see snakes whilst walking in the bush, the snake senses the vibrations created by footsteps and beats a hasty retreat for cover. There is however snakes that do not retreat when approached and this is a direct result of the morphological attributes they contain. Bitis arietans, Bitis atropos and, Bitis gabonica, are species of snakes that rather rely on their camouflage to conceal them from potential predators and dangers than to move away, and it is not surprising to find out that Bitis arietans is responsible for 60% of all snake bites in Southern Africa. Contrary to popular believe snakes do have good vision. How else would they safely navigate through the bus h except of course via smell? Their vision however is used mainly for detecting movement. Most snakes have monocular vision (unable to distinguish depth of field) whilst some snakes have binocular vision (able to distinguish depth of field) e.g. Thelotornis capensis and Dispholidus typus. Snakes do not have movable eyelids, instead they possess a fixed transparent shield which covers the eye and is shed during sloughing. Sense of smell For this function the snake uses its tongue. The tongue is flickered; picking up minute airborne particles which when retracted back into the mouth is deposited onto organs situated in the roof of the mouth. These organs are known as the organs of Jacobson. Studies have shown that snakes enjoys a similar sense of smell as we do, the epithelium of the organs of Jacobson works in exactly the same way as the olfactory epithelium we as humans possess. The tongue is forked so that the snake can detect the differences in strength of smell and thus enabling it to locate its prey very accurately. Snakes diet consists of quite a few prey items such as: rats, mice, small mammals, birds, frogs, toads, insects, lizards, fish, small antelope, eggs and other snakes, which is swallowed whole usually head first. Shedding Shedding of skin depends primarily on the growth rate. Juveniles for example shed their skin more often than adults for the simple reason that they are growing faster. Juveniles may shed their skin as often as twelve times a year whereas an adult may only shed its skin three to four times a year. During this process the entire skin is shed from the tip of the snout through to the tail including the eye shields. During this time the snakes eyes become opaque, restricting the snakes vision and therefore making the snake not only more vulnerable, but also more aggressive. A snake may often go into hiding during this period. You may also find snakes basking for longer periods prior to shedding, the reason being higher temperature speeds up the development of new skin, thus reducing the vulnerability period. Cold Blooded (Ectothermic) and Hibernation All members of the order Squamata are so called cold blooded (exothermic) organisms. This simply means that unlike mammals and birds which generate heat internally (endothermic), reptiles obtain their heat externally, usually from the sun. All reptiles will bask in the sun absorbing heat from their environment until their bodies reach the correct optimal temperature (ÂÂ ± 30Â °C) which allows them to function at their maximum potential. The advantage of ectothermy is that it is fuel efficient. Mammals on the other hand convert 90% of what they eat into heat in order to maintain biochemical and muscle efficiency which allows mammals the opportunity to function at colder temperatures. This method demands a constant intake of food. Reptiles however become temporarily dormant at colder temperatures and thus waste no energy. A snake can survive and grow on ten to fifteen meals a year. Reptiles will go into hibernation when their optimal body temperature cannot be achieved from the e nvironment. In areas where there is a significant fluctuation in temperature snakes will go into hibernation. The correct term used is topor. Areas such as the lowveld where there is no significant temperature variations will see reptiles not going into true hibernation but rather into a state of burmation. During hibernation snakes live off the body fat accumulated during the warm periods of the summer, and will exhibit very little signs of activity, thus becoming sluggish. A snake will use anything that will offer it protection against the elements and predation. Sites which are used by Squamates during the winter or cold times of the year for hibernation include deserted termite mounds, hollow logs and rock crevices. Reproduction Sexually active males will approach any snake they come across. The reaction of the approached snake will determine how the encounter develops. If the approached snake is a male and reacts aggressively it may give rise to a battle between the two parties. Battles vary according to species, Vipers and Elapids generally engage in a form of ritualistic wrestling, but refrain themselves from biting each other. Colubrids however react violently and bite each other severely. In some species of snakes several males group together amicably and follow a receptive female. Should there be no reaction from the approached snake the sexually active male uses its Vermonasal organ to chemically determine the species and sex of the snake it has approached. It does so with the use of its tongue interpreting the pheromones emitting from the other snake. Should it be of a different species, the male then seeks out a new mate. All reptiles have internal fertilization. The male places his head on the back of the female and winds his tail around the females and attempts to join their cloacas together. This is seldom achieved at the first attempt. It sometimes takes hours, even days, for successful copulation to take place. The sexual organs of the male consist of two penises, referred to as the hemipenes. Each hemipene is equipped with flexible spines which inflate once penetration has occurred making it difficult for the male and female snakes to become dislodged. Sperm is transferred to the female via a single penis in Crocodilians and Chelonians, and paired penises in lizards and snakes (although only one penis is used at a time). Once mating has taken place the male will often stay with the female for a few days to mate again. Fertilization of the ovule and spermatozoid takes place high in the oviduct, then the egg gradually moves down into the oviduct where the uterine glands secrete a substance which surrounds the egg. The length of the embryonic development depends on the species and also within the species depending on climate (temperature), and ranges from 2-5 months. As stated before all snakes hatch from eggs. The method of incubation however does differ between some species. The majority of snakes lay eggs andleave them to be incubated externally (oviviparous) with no parental care whatsoever. Species such as Python natalensis coils around their eggs throughout incubation. This not only protects the eggs but also regulates the temperature to help assist with incubation. In other species such as Hemachatus haemachatus the female retains the eggs inside her body to produce fully developed live young (viviparous). Between four to eight weeks after mating the female selects a suitable site to deposit her eggs. The site chosen is usually a suitably protected place in the form of rotting vegetation, hollow tree trunks or any other suitable location. The number of eggs deposited depends on a variety of circumstances for example, species, size of the female, habitat (availability of food), age and climate. Eggs laid vary between one and two to as many as 60, sometimes more, depending on factors mentioned above. Eggs usually have soft leathery shells which require a specific amount of heat and humidity in order to ensure that hatch. Once the eggs have been laid there is often no parental care with the exception of a few species. In South Africa the young of Python natalensis may stay with the female for several days after hatching, leaving the burrow by day and returning to the female at night. In most reptiles the sex of hatchlings is determined by temperature, for example outer eggs (cooler) will be female while the inner eggs (warmer) within the nest will be male. The eggs usually hatch between one to three months after the female has deposited them. In the case of some species of chameleons eggs might take up to a year to hatch. The young are equipped with an egg tooth consisting of a sharp ridge on the tip of the snout which allows the young to slit open the eggshell thus freeing itself. The young that emerges are exact replicas of the adults, and the hatchlings of venomous snakes are equipped with fully functional venom glands and fangs, and are thus venomous directly from birth. Egg mortality is quite high. Reasons for egg mortality range from predation to unsuitable nest sites chosen. Giving birth to live young may be an evolutionary process to assure the success of a species, reducing the risk of egg mortality in particularly cold areas where the temperatures wont be adequate enough for incubation. Movement (Locomotion Speed) The ability to function at speed and endurance is directly related to the supply and amount of oxygenated blood to the body. Reptiles, unlike mammals and birds, do not receive as good supply of oxygenated blood. Directly translated, this means that reptiles tire more easily and are incapable of endurance. Based on these facts it is doubtful that the speed of a snake would exceed 20km/h which is much slower than the average human. The two fastest snake species world occur in Southern Africa and belongs to the genus Psammophis and Dendroaspis. There are four basic modes of locomotion in snakes: Sepentine This is the more familiar method of locomotion that most snakes use e.g. the family Elapidae which makes use of this method. The body undulates from side to side while the hind part of the snake makes contact with the surface and the rest of the body is pushed in the direction the snake wishes to go. Caterpillar These are usually heavy bodied snakes e.g. Bitis arietans. The snake progresses in a primarily straight line using its ventral scales to propel it forward. Concertina This is when a part of the body is anchored whilst pushing forward. The snake may anchor its head and then drags the rest of the body towards the head. This is often seen in arboreal species when negotiating between smooth braches of trees. Snakes that make use of this type of locomotion usually contain the characteristic of keeled ventral scales, and include species of the genus Philothamnus. Sidewinding This method is most seen in desert species. It is the most effective method of locomotion on loose unstable surfaces such as sand. Only one or two sections of the body are in contact with the surface at any given time. A section of the body is thrown sideways and is followed by the next section. This way of locomotion can be seen as a specific adaption for desert species e.g. Bitis peringueyi, to ensure that they dont get burned by the hot desert sand when moving. Scales Most people refer to snakes as being wet or slimy, which is quite the contrary. In fact if you touch a snake you will notice that it is in fact dry. Scales are horny skin that originates from the snakes epidermis. The primary function of scales is to prevent rapid water loss, an evolutionary process which has allowed snakes to move onto land. Scales can be smooth or keeled. Some snakes use their scales as a warning mechanism. By rubbing them together this creates a rasping sound that serves as a warning to would be predators. Dasypeltis scabra is a species of snake that occur in Southern Africa and which use this specific defensive mechanism to ward of predators. The North American rattlesnakes rattle is also an example of modified scales that formed through evolution. Scales also help in the locomotion of snakes. Scale counts remain one of the main methods in the identification and classification between different species of snakes. There are four methods which can be used to correctly identify a species via scale counts: Head scales This is done by counting the upper and lower labials on each side, taking note of which scales are in contact with the eye. Examine the nasal scales (single, semi-divided or fully divided). Count the number of preocular and postocular scales and check whether a loreal shield is present. There should also be taken note of the arrangements of scales that occur on the temples, and the presence of any fused scales. Observe the relative sizes of internasals, prefrontals, frontal and parietals, and also note the proportions and shape of the rostral scales at the front of the nose. Dorsal scales Note whether the scales are smooth or keeled. And one head length away from head and in front of the cloaca Subcaudal scales The first scale is the single or paired scale that meets the lateral scales on both sides. Count back along the tail towards the conical tip. Note whether scales or anal shields are single or divided as this forms a crucial part of the identification between different families of snakes. Internal Anatomy of Snakes A snakes skull is specifically designed to suit their specialized feeding habits. Because a snake cannot chew its food and must swallow it whole it is important that the snake be able to open its mouth very wide. For this reason the fifty odd bones in the skull are not fused together, instead they are loosely connected to each other by ligaments which allows the snake to produce an enlarged gape allowing it to swallow prey much larger than its head. The concept is similar to an elastic band. Often after a snake has eaten it will seem to yawn, this is done simply to relax the ligaments and bones t their original shape. The structure of a snakes brain is very similar to that of a bird, but unlike birds and mammals snakes lack the enlarged cerebral hemispheres. In mammals (and birds) the cerebral is the part of the brain, which acts as the learning center of the organism. For this reason, although snakes are perfectly adapted to the environment, it is correct to say that snakes are not very intelligent. To allow snakes to engulf such large prey whole the stomach has to be very strong and elastic allowing it to expand greatly once prey is engulfed. Powerful digestive juices allow the snake to digest bone and teeth. Because a snake is for the most part long and cylindrical, the shape of the lung must be somewhat different in order to fit inside the snakes body. The right lung is usually the largest and extends for 1/3 of snakes body length. The left lung, in most cases is absent, or very small. Snakes have in effect only one lung. During feeding the snake is able to extend a muscular extension of its windpipe (epiglottis) from the bottom of its mouth allowing it to breathe while prey is being consumed. Most reptiles have a primitive three chambered heart which is not as effective as the four chambered heart found in crocodiles (and mammals). In snakes oxygen depleted blood gets pumped into one of the top chambers while oxygenated blood gets pumped into the other top chamber, both chambers get emptied into the bottom chamber and then circulated through the body. This is the main reason why snakes tire easily. In proportion to their body size snakes have very large kidneys. The left kidney is situated behind the right kidney in the abdominal region. The function of the kidney is to filter the waste products from the bloodstream and pass them on to the cloaca for excretion. Unlike mammals which excrete nitrogen waste in the form of water soluble urea, snakes excrete these body wastes as crystals which forms a dry white paste which is excreted along with the feaces. This allows reptiles to be extremely efficient in their use of water. Mammals have a separate urinary, reproductive and a nal opening. Snakes however do not. Instead they have a common chamber known as the cloaca which performs all these rudimentary functions. Waste material is stored in the cloaca until eliminated. The claoca opens to the outside through a transverse slit at the base of the tail. It is often possible to tell the difference in sexes between species by looking at the length from the cloaca to the tip of the tail. The longer the distance between these points would signify the snake as being male whereas a short distance between these points would indicate the snake as being female. The reason behind this is that during reproduction, as mentioned earlier, the male wraps his tail around the females. Some snakes, like the Pythonidae family, have special glands which also empty into the cloaca, these glands contain a foul musky scent which can be ejected when a snake is threatened, frightened or stressed. Venom There is no easy describing venom. Simply put, snake venom is highly modified saliva which is produced by modified saliva glands. Venom is a combination of different enzymes, or proteins, that act on other chemicals and proteins thus altering them or simply breaking them down. Many of these proteins are harmless, but some are toxins. The makeup of these toxins varies widely from species to species. Snakes venom can therefore be best described as a cocktail of hundreds of different proteins and enzymes, this complexity alone accounts for widely differing effects of snakebite. In essence venom affects the protein and chemicals of the immune system and the blood, transported through the body via the lymphatic system. The venom glands are situated in the skull slightly behind the eyes. In order for venom to be effective it has to be injected into the circulatory system. It is therefore quite safe for a normal healthy person to drink venom without any consequences. Venom cannot be compared to poison, and are totally different entities. Venom has to be injected (circulatory system) Poison has to be ingested (swallowed) The functions of venom are numerous: Prevents the putrification of prey prior to ingestion. Immobilizes prey thus preventing the snake from being injured. Digestive properties within the venom begin the digestive process prior to ingestion. Snake venom is also antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiprotozoal which protects the snake from microbial diseases which it may contract from prey. As a last resort, self defense when the snake is threatened. There are three types of snake venom: Neurotoxic nerve acting venom (Elapidae). Cytotoxic cel destroying venom (Viperidae.) Haemotoxic blood acting venom (Colubridae). Fangs (Dentition) All snakes have teeth, but not all snakes have fangs. Most snakes have teeth on the upper and lower

The Rhetoric of Reggae in Artful Cinema for the World :: Reggae Jamaican Music Film Essays

The Rhetoric of Reggae in Artful Cinema for the World Perry Henzel's The Harder They Come is credited with a significant and unique role in introducing American audiences to reggae. Whereas earlier cinematic crossmarketed films like A Hard Days Night or Help! were adjunct to and dependent on a group's previous commercial musical success, Henzel's film was for many an introduction to reggae and both precursor and impetus for its international impact and commercial popularity. The film's status as a cult classic and phenomenon, to the extent a phenomenon can be explained, perhaps rests on its lack of commercial pretentions or promotional glitz, and thus its authenticity. The rhetoric of this film -- its images, words, and music in complementary array -- is rhetoric in the best sense because it uses the power of language to reveal, not to disguise, the unconscionable constraints on the lives of poor Jamaicans. Principally it's a film by a Jamaican artist about some musically and culturally significant events happening in Jamaica at the time, and though it is formulaic as films tend to be, it also encompasses all of the majors themes and conflicts that define and swirl around reggae music: spirituality, sensuality, commercialism, social justice, the messiah, and even Armageddon, though its tenor is decidedly secular The genius of the film is that it synthesizes a multitude of cultural and musical elements and still manages to function rhetorically on separate but parallel levels of communication. The fundamental message for Jamaican audiences was to document, authenticate, and value the Jamaican reality. As Henzel notes in his running commentary, a special feature of the DVD, Jamaicans cheered the film's opening scenes wildly, simply because they recognized themselves and their world in a powerful global medium that had paid them no mind until then. "There is no thrill in moviedom like people seeing themselves on the screen for the first time." The experience and the legacy of colonialism accustoms people who suffer it to literature and film that depicts the lives and perspectives of the colonizers, not the colonized. As Jamaica Kincaid explains in a memoir of a Carribean childhood, all of her reading was from books set in England. Her land and its people were not worthy of literary attenti on. While finally getting such cinematic attention is a joyful, liberating, and affirming interaction for the Jamaican audience, it has an ironic dimension too in that the downpressed are joyous because at last they see themselves if not through the downpressor's lens, at least on his screen.

Ephedrine with Caffine - The Secret to Weight Loss :: Health Diet Essays

Ephedrine with Caffine - The Secret to Weight Loss Ephedrine is an over the counter herbal stimulant stemmed from the Chinese plant ma huang. The Chinese discovered this stimulant over two thousand years ago for the purpose of treating asthma, cold and flu symptoms, chills, lack of perspiration, headache, and edema. Ephedrine is presently found in herbal stimulants, prescription cold and flu remedies, and asthmatic aid products. Because it is a stimulant, ephedrine motivates thermogenesis in the body. This effect results in speeding up the heart rate causing the metabolism to expedite. Due to this increased metabolism, ephedrine can also be used as a weight loss supplement http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychology/ephedrine-final.htm Ephedrine contributes to weight loss with its thermogenetic effects by heating up the body, which in turn results in burning fat. It speeds up the metabolic rate and calorie consumption by opening the receptor sites in the heart and lungs. Consequently, fatty acids are released from the stored fat cells and the transition from fat to energy is greatly increased. Another beneficial effect is directed to the muscles increasing stamina and endurance for body builders (http://www.mahuang.com). One study in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition of March in 1987 showed that a group of rats lost 75% of their body fat from ephedrine. Another study performed in the International Journal of Obesity Related Metabolic Disorders in February of 1993 made claims that "ephedrine increases the release of brain catecholomines to enhance thermogenesis, without significant cardiovascular effects" and concluded that "varying combinations of ephedrine and aspirin could provide a safe combination with the necessary thermogenetic properties to assist in the management of obesity" (http://www.smartbasic.com/glos.herbs/ephedra_wt.loss.html) Harmful side effects†¦ In addition to the reports about the positive aspects of ephedrine, harmful side affects have also been declared. It can alter emotions causing aggressiveness or anxiety that can lead an individual to a risk of personal injury. Other harmful side effects include an increased heart rate and blood pressure possibly leading to dehydration and decreased circulation. Long term more serious effects that these conditions can lead to include cerebral hemorrhage, strokes, or heart irregularities (http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychology/ephedrine-final.htm). Some serious dangers such as death have been related to the use of ephedrine. For this reason, regulatory action on this herb is being considered. The herb has been discovered to be the beginning ingredient in methamphetamine laboratories for the product of the illegal stimulant drug (http://www.smartbasic.com/glos.herbs/ephedra.html. Other abuses of this herb have also been reported causing death.

Gender Dichotomies on MTV Essay -- MTV Sex Feminism Females Macho Essa

Gender Dichotomies on MTV TV is a worldwide phenomenon that has defined an entire generation. Six out of ten households receive MTV as part of their basic cable service, and adolescents spend, on average, two hours a day watching the network (Signorelli, McLeod, & Healy 92). This is not only in America. Viacom, MTV’s parent company, claims to reach 320 million households in 90 countries on 5 continents for 24 hours a day (Mundy 240). Such a large spanning audience has many worried about the great world influence the network has. One such questionable effect of MTV is the power the network to perpetuate the stereotypes depicting women as purely sexual beings, not respectable individuals. This is a difficult controversy to discern because it is only "the latest skirmish in a never ending culture war between young women trying to control their sexuality and a society which fears its power," (When Sex Goes Pop) MTV’s sexual depictions have been criticized because of the poor representation and explicit sexualization of women and young girls. To sexualize is to make the performer or extra in a music video worthless aside from his or her sexual appeal. Please note that I did say "his" or "her", but by the end of my paper you will know that, statistically, the overwhelming number of individuals whom are sexualized are female. I believe something needs to be done to stop this, but others do not perceive these "sexual video images" as a threat. These people seem to discount such displays as rock-n-roll culture and believe that people are wasting their time overanalyzing music videos. These MTV supporters, artists, and record executives perceive the scantily clad women as a display of self-assurance or a well-made business decisio... ...hese should not include the MTV-esque scantily clad overly made up women that they see in music videos. Rather, they should be presented of self-assured, realistic looking, kind women who make positive contributions to society. One such example is Mia Hamm, the first person, male or female, to be named the US soccer athlete of the year for three consecutive years. In the 1996 Olympic games, Mia sprained her ankle in the first round but feigned the injury and led her team to victory as world champions. When you contrast such an amazing athletic performance to that of Britney Spears it is enough to make one sick. Young girls should not be emulating Britney who allows herself to be manipulated by powerful record executives; rather, girls should be looking up to real women who are capable of overcoming adversity. We must be better ancestors and provide such role models.

Rationality of the research

  Tourism is one of the largest industries in UK, apart from generating employment both directly and indirectly to large number of people; it is also a source of foreign exchanges for UK government.The net worth of  Ã‚   tourism is approximately  £63.83 billion and it employs more than 1.5 million people about 7 percent of all employment in restaurants, travel agencies museums, and pubs.Apart from being one the largest, tourism has also become number one online segment. The number of travelers who use the   internet for travel-related purposes have continued to increase daily. Latest data from Internet World Stats reveal that world’s internet users have reached approximately 1.17 billions with UK ranks 7th in the world with approximately 37.6 millions internet users.2Therefore, with the increase in the numbers of travelers that book online, tourism has continued to experience booming in sales.People now book rooms, buy tickets and make hotel reservation online. Recent announcement from British Hospitality Association revealed that the UK Economy benefited from tourism in 2004 to the tune of  £81.5 billion.Thus web presence has now become an essential factor in the growth of tourism industry, therefore the use of website to search for necessary information has been on the increased tremendously. Nevertheless, the design of website is a key issue for the tourisms organization and it has become an indispensable tool in making revenue for many organizations.The information gathered from 2005 Market Report revealed the number of people engaging in electronic commerce in UK is increasing yearly.4

Deaf Event Paper

Deaf Event Paper For my Deaf Event I decided to attend the Silent Dinner at Valley Ranch Barbeque this past Tuesday April 27th, 2010 with my fellow classmate a best friend, Amber Cullens. A few days leading up to the event I was completely nervous I didn’t know what to expect. With only being a beginning sign language one student I was afraid that I would freeze up or sign something that would be offensive or make me look stupid. When we got to Valley Ranch the dinner had already started so we got in line and ordered our food. We then took our seats in the separate banquet type room they put us in for the silent dinner. Everything was so overwhelming at first, everyone was signing so fast we couldn’t keep pace and didn’t want to be rude by asking for help. Thankfully we weren’t alone there were fellow other Lone Star Students there along with High School students. Even Leyel Hudson attended the event which made things even more comfortable for us having a teacher we know around to assist us if needed any help. I can’t believe I stressed so much beforehand about attending, the Houston Deaf Community was very welcoming and helpful when we would sign with them. They made sure to try and go slower for us and some even helped by writing things down on paper so we could keep up. My favorite thing about the event was not just meeting Deaf parents, but the children of Deaf Parents. I met a young 8 year old boy and his older sister who was 12. They have not only learned English but also Sign Language so they can communicate with their parents. They were truly a great inspiration to be around. Attending this Deaf Event has inspired me to attend more not just while I’m enrolled as a student at Lone Star but on my own time. Currently because of attending this event I’m making it my goal to bring Deaf Events to my job, McAlister’s Deli. Overall the experience was one I’ll never forget for the rest of my life.

Last time i saw him Essay

The last time I saw my Grandfather he was walking along the beach with his metal detector. Actually it was not the last time I physically saw him, but it was the last time that I would see him and be able to talk to him person to person, eye to eye. I remember my surprise as I stood at the rail on the boardwalk looking down upon the steaming sand, noting nothing remarkable until, from the corner of my eye, I spied his figure. He had a figure that I had grown up knowing in silhouette distinct in my mind – but not as his. It was the familiar figure of Alfred Hitchcock. Whenever I looked at Grandpa I saw that shadowy teller of tales from days gone by. But, as I knew that I was not seeing the grand master of mystery himself, I knew it could be, couldn’t it, why yes . . . it was, Grandpa. He was slowly searching the sand for buried treasure with his prized metal detector. A hobby that he had adopted after retiring from the workaday world. Although I knew he lived somewhat cl ose to Seaside, that was the first time that it occurred to me that I might actually run into him. I suppose one never expects to run into their grandparents at the beach. I smiled silently for a moment as I watched that adorable man, donned in shorts, t-shirt. baseball cap and earphones studiously monitoring his valuable machine for blips or beeps. But that moment passed quickly as I called out to him, â€Å"Grandpa, Grandpa† waving my hand furiously to draw his attention. He spied me yet seemed puzzled as to who I could possibly be. I was, after all, the only black haired granddaughter that he had. After a moment or two of contemplation I watched as he seemed to awaken. As he waved back I began to walk toward a place where hellos could become hugs. I brought him to the pizzeria where Kenny, my husband, worked and we fed and watered the old dear. We sat talking at a table for moments too swift, not knowing then that this would be the last time we would really have the chance. We talked briefly of family matters that, in the big picture of things, seem not to have mattered enough for me to note them; of the wonderful treasures found beneath the sand thanks largely to his narrow, metal sidekick; of why Ken and I were in Seaside at all, and how long we planned to stay. Small talk filling a smaller moment in time. I asked him why he would want to wear that baseball cap, as I could not remember having seen him in one before, and he showed me the brilliance of the sunlight upon his naked head. I joked with him about not seeing me only feet away from where he was, and he  explained his glaucoma operation that would be taking place that month. We embraced as I walked him out and said goodbye. I may have just spent moments listening, but I was not hearing. He was not telling me about small items that day, he was telling me, I am old now and time is ticking away. He was warning me that he would not be here forever, yet I did not heed his warning. He was telling me goodbye that summer’s day and I was saying â€Å"Talk to you soon.† I was but a foolish child. As he walked away, the sun was taking a bow before fading away. I did not, until this day, see that something more blindingly beautiful had also taken their bow. As I yelled goodbye, at the moment the surf washed the sand back into its home – the sea, did he hear talk to you later or did he merely whisper, â€Å"Yes, goodbye.†

Political Cartoon Analysis Essay

World War II was a time of great social turmoil in the United States, not only because of its active role in the war, but also because of the radical changes taking place in society. As an effect of the Jim Crow laws, people were beginning to speak up against segregation and demand equal rights. During this time, many activists and political reformists used different forms of social media in order to present their ideas regarding racism. In 1942, Dr. Seuss published this political cartoon in the New York PM newspaper as a way to address the issue of racial discrimination by urging change in the war industry. Because the war industry did not value the use of black labor in the war effort, the main idea presented in this cartoon is that both white and black labor are required to achieve real peace and equality in society. Seuss uses symbolism, his characters, and text in order to effectively portray his message to his audience, the people of the United States. Seuss uses Uncle Sam and the satirical character â€Å"War Industry† in order to represent the two conflicting viewpoints on the issue of racism. While Uncle Sam represents the democratic American ideals of equality, â€Å"War Industry† symbolizes the group of people, companies, and racial mindsets that support racial segregation. In this cartoon, Uncle Sam represents the goal of the American labor force: to incorporate the use of all men, regardless of race, in order to fight for the nation. However, the War Industry representative symbolizes a more prejudiced, racist mindset. His top hat and cigar reveal that he is of a wealthy class, which separates him from the common laborers and working class. He is seen to be playing only the white keys on the piano, which demonstrates the use of only white labor in the war efforts. His short hands represent his reluctance to incorporate black labor into the industry because of bigotry and racial stereotypes. Although Uncle Sam is not violent or imposing in this cartoon, his expression reflects sternness and forcefulness, showing his urgency to incorporate black labor into the war industry with a non-violent, practical approach. In addition to the use of his characters, Seuss uses text in order to convince his audience of his ideals regarding racism in the war efforts. The quote near the top of the cartoon states that â€Å"real harmony† can only be achieved by using both white and black labor in the war efforts. Not only does Uncle Sam advocate for equality, but he also wants to see the success of the war industry. He uses this appeal in order to address the desires of the wealthy class. By using the word â€Å"harmony†, he means both racial equality in society, as well as improvements in the war industry. The white keys on the piano are labelled â€Å"White Labor† which far outnumber the black keys. This represents the idea that black labor is seldom used in the war industry. Seuss wants to show his audience that, using both black and white labor force will improve the condition of society. Lastly, Seuss’s use of symbolism further demonstrates his message of racial equality in the war effort. The piano itself is a symbol for the distribution of work in the labor force amongst whites and blacks. In addition, the cobwebs on the black keys symbolize the rare use, or no use at all, of black labor during World War II. In addition, there is a uneven distribution of smoke coming out of the pipes of the piano. This shows that the instrument, or labor force, is not being used to its full extent. While some parts of the piano are stressed, others are seldom used and are neglected. This applies to the labor force in America. By not allowing blacks to work in the war industry, the full potential of America’s working class is not being used. In conclusion, Dr. Suess’s political cartoon addresses the issues of racial segregation within the American society. This political cartoon was widely controversial in its time because of its political stance and radical ideas that oppose the Jim Crow laws and the upper class of society. Although this cartoon did not directly cause a dramatic change in society, it advocated for a very important idea in American history, the issue of equality of all people.

Three possible remedies that Smithville Industrial Chemical Essay

Three possible remedies that Smithville Industrial Chemical - Essay Example The main mistake that was made by the Smithville Industrial Chemical Company was that it did not monitor the environmental sustainability quotients and mechanisms employed in the respective factories. This is the main reason as to why the owner of the Smithville Industrial Chemical Company could not respond adequacy to the allegations of the water in the area being polluted by the wastages disposed by the factories of the company. Had the owner of the company kept a proper track on its production and operations processes including the wastage management, waste disposal and sustainability initiatives, and then he would not have to be surprised and worried by the allegations made by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR). This would not only have saved the time and effort of the public, the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and the company itself abut would also have helped the faster functioning of the Department of Natural Resource and identification of the actual cause of the problem . This would have subsequently helped to provide a clean chit to the alleged company, Smithville Industrial Chemical Company. The false identification of the source of hazard resulted in the delayed identification of the actual cause of the problem. In the situations of the local people being unable to use the water resources, time was an important factor for consideration in the complaint and conflict management processes. Therefore, this can be identified to be a major mistake on the part of the Department of Natural Resources (DNR).

Annotated Bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Annotated Bibliography - Essay Example According to this model, the role of the nurse involves the identification of potentials, assets and strengths within the family setting and encouraging the family members to focus on them. The nurses also seek to convert deficits in the family to strengths. Through this model of nursing, families become empowered and can achieve much more in the promoting health. According to this model, health denotes a social phenomenon, and a behavioral code communicated within societal structures such as the family and community at large. This essay will provide an annotation of sources that provide relevant information for use in this research. Allen, F., & Warner, M. (2002). A developmental model of health and nursing. Journal Of Family Nursing, 8(2), 96-135. Summary This article provides one of the critical essays written by Allen Moyra, the developer of the developmental model of health and nursing. She sought to develop a model that would describe a relevant organization with the potential of bringing the family unit and health professionals into working to promote health. The McGill model, as it is also referred, is one of the models adopted by nurses in improving the efficiency of their services. This article highlights that families have potentials, assets and strengths that can play a critical in improving health. ... Allen highlighted that through this model of nursing, families become empowered, and can achieve much more in the promoting health. Critique and Annotation This article discusses the developmental model of health and nursing, a concept that Allen introduced into the nursing field in 1996 in a bid to introduce a re-orientation in the Canadian nursing practice. The author of the article held a PhD in education, masters and bachelor’s degree in nursing explaining her competence in describing the model. Assignment two seeks to define the developmental model of health and nursing. In this context, the article is very relevant because it offers a description of the model as developed by Moyra Allen, a description that targeted nurses in practice. The article defines the objectives of the model in nursing and defines the context into which it applies. In this article, there is an elaborate definition of health as a social phenomenon, which is the definition exhibiting relevance to th e McGill model of nursing. In order to define health in this context, she identified the difference between health and context, and highlighting the urgency of adopting healthy lifestyles. Moreover, the article is of great relevance in this research because it offers the core information that defines the model. The author describes the assumptions underlying the model, and outlines the significance of the family in fostering health. The author outlines the relationship between the nurses ‘role and the family in according health care. In the research, this paper will serve as a foundation in developing the context of the essay. Moreover, this article succeeds in outlining the organization required in practice guided by this article.